Effectiveness of GALOP on Teaching Quality and Learner Achievement in Pre-Tertiary Education: Evidence from Ejisu Municipality

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1. Introduction

Quality basic education remains the cornerstone of Ghana’s human capital development agenda, and improving learning outcomes in pre-tertiary schools has become increasingly urgent against the backdrop of persistent performance gaps across municipalities. Although major policy reforms, including the Education Strategic Plan (2018-2030) and targeted investments in teacher professional development, have been rolled out nationally, evidence shows that many basic schools continue to struggle with inadequate instructional delivery and low foundational literacy and numeracy gains. To address these systemic challenges, the Government of Ghana in 2019 launched the Ghana Accountability for Learning Outcomes Project (GALOP), as illustrated in Figure 1, an intervention aimed at improving teaching quality, strengthening accountability, and raising learner achievement, particularly in low-performing basic schools. GALOP deploys performance-based financing, school-level improvement grants, teacher capacity-building programmes, and enhanced learning assessments to drive measurable change in classroom practice and pupil learning (WBPP 2020; MoEG 2024).

Fig 1: Conceptual framework illustrating the mechanism through which GALOP interventions, performance-based financing, school improvement grants, teacher capacity-building programmes, and enhanced learning assessments, act synergistically to strengthen classroom practice and subsequently improve learner achievement at the pre-tertiary level.

GALOP (Ghana Accountability for Learning Outcomes Project) is a flagship reform for pre-tertiary (basic) education because it directly targets the weakest parts of the system, low-performing basic schools, and links additional resources to measurable improvements in learning. The project’s development objective is to improve the quality of basic education and strengthen equity and accountability by focusing on about 10,000 disadvantaged public schools nationwide, now expanded under Additional Financing to cover all public KG and primary schools. Through school improvement grants, performance-based financing, and strengthened inspection and accountability systems, GALOP seeks to raise foundational literacy and numeracy, reduce learning gaps between regions, and ensure more efficient use of public education spending (WBPP, 2019). For classroom practice, GALOP is significant because it finances in-service teacher training, targeted instruction, and provision of teaching and learning materials, including harmonized lesson observation tools and coaching for teachers. These interventions are designed to support differentiated teaching for struggling learners and to institutionalize continuous assessment and data use in schools (WBPP, 2020). Evidence from implementation updates indicates that GALOP schools increasingly have trained teachers, lower pupil-teacher ratios, and improving scores in English and Mathematics at Basic 4, suggesting early gains in learning quality and system equity (WBPP, 2019). In addition, GALOP supports the reintegration of out-of-school children and helped sustain learning during COVID-19 through remedial and accelerated learning programs, reinforcing its role as a central pillar of Ghana’s Education Strategic Plan 2018-2030 for pre-tertiary education (GPRBA, 2025).

The Ejisu Municipality in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, provides a particularly relevant context for assessing the effectiveness of GALOP. Despite its strategic location and growing socioeconomic profile, the municipality continues to record uneven learning outcomes in core subjects, limited access to structured in-service training for teachers, insufficient teaching and learning materials in some schools, and weak accountability structures linking school leadership to learner performance. Reports from local school supervision suggest recurring challenges such as high pupil-teacher ratios, inadequate pedagogical differentiation for slow learners, inconsistent lesson delivery quality, low parental involvement, and erratic implementation of continuous assessments (Sepadi et al., 2025; Silmi et al., al., 2025) [33, 35]. Consequently, many learners in the municipality complete basic school without securing the foundational skills required for smooth transition into higher levels of education.

While GALOP has been fully operational in Ejisu for several years, systematic empirical evidence on its effectiveness at the municipal level is scarce. Existing national monitoring reports evaluate GALOP’s performance broadly but do not capture contextualized insights on how the intervention is influencing instructional practices, teacher motivation, school leadership participation, and learner achievement within specific districts and sub-districts. This constitutes a critical knowledge gap because the success of GALOP ultimately depends on whether the intervention translates into tangible improvements where learning takes place, in the classroom.

This current study, titled “Effectiveness of GALOP on Teaching Quality and Learner Achievement in Pre-Tertiary Education: Evidence from Ejisu Municipality,” seeks to address this gap by examining (i) how GALOP has influenced teaching quality across selected public basic schools; (ii) the extent to which learner outcomes, particularly in literacy and numeracy, have improved as a result of GALOP; and (iii) the operational bottlenecks that shape implementation at the school level. The study adopts a multi-stakeholder perspective, incorporating the views of teachers, head-teachers, students, parents, and educational administrators to provide a comprehensive understanding of GALOP’s impact.

Beyond documenting effectiveness, the findings are expected to contribute to policy and practice by providing localized evidence that can guide future improvement cycles for GALOP and related interventions. Results will help determine whether the current implementation model sufficiently supports teachers to transform instructional delivery, whether school leadership and accountability mechanisms are functioning optimally, and whether learners in Ejisu are benefiting equitably from the intervention. Furthermore, this study paves the way for future research by highlighting areas that require deeper investigation, including longitudinal tracking of learner performance under GALOP, comparative analyses across municipalities, gender-disaggregated learning gains, and evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of performance-based financing in basic education. The insights generated will therefore not only inform continuous improvement in Ejisu Municipality but also contribute to Ghana’s broader evidence base for system-wide educational reform.

2. Methodology

The model for the study as exhibited in Figure 2 proposes that improvements in teacher capacity and professional development, availability and effective use of teaching and learning resources, and strengthened school accountability systems act as reinforcing drivers of quality learning outcomes. Each independent variable exerts both direct and indirect influence on the four dependent outcome domains: DV1 - Student academic performance in core subjects, DV2 - Effectiveness and consistency of teacher instructional practices, DV3 - Extent of utilization of learning materials in classrooms, DV4 - School-level governance, monitoring, and accountability mechanisms. The model reflects a multi-causal, system-strengthening logic, where improvement in teaching, resourcing, and accountability interact to produce sustainable gains in school-level learning quality.

Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study Fig 2: Inter-relationship model illustrating the hypothesized influence of teacher capacity building and professional development, provision of learning materials, and strengthened accountability systems on multidimensional quality learning outcomes in pre-tertiary education.

2.1. Population and Sampling

Consequently, and in alignment with the stakeholder framework illustrated in Figures 1 and 2, the study involved students from primary and JHS levels, teachers, headteachers, educational administrators, parents, and community representatives, constituting the core collaborative actors in the implementation of GALOP. A multistage sampling approach was applied: GALOP beneficiary schools were first stratified across educational circuits, after which teachers and students were selected through simple random sampling. Headteachers and educational administrators were selected purposively due to their supervisory and implementation roles, while parents and community stakeholders for Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were identified using snowball sampling. The final sample size was sufficient to support both quantitative and qualitative analyses, forming key collaborative team for the implementation of GALOP (Figure 3) as discussed by Quansah, (2023) [30] and Asim et al., (2024) [5].

Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study Fig 3: The collaborative framework illustrates the multi-stakeholder structure that underpins the implementation and evaluation of the GALOP within Ejisu Municipality. A total of 336 students (n = 200 from primary schools and n = 131 from junior high schools JHS) represent the direct beneficiaries of learning interventions and provide the primary indicators of outcome performance. Ninety-seven (n = 97) teachers and seventy-six (n = 76) headmasters, the instructional and administrative agents of change, form the core implementation segment. At the policy and governance level, educational administrators (n = 9) contribute oversight on resource allocation and compliance. Community stakeholders, including parents (n = 20), community representatives (n = 6), and community leaders (n = 6), complete the feedback loop by supplying contextual, cultural, and accountability inputs. The interconnectedness of these groups in the framework highlights that learning outcomes under GALOP emerge not from isolated instructional reforms but from a coordinated, multilevel ecosystem of school, household, and administrative actors.

A mixed-methods research design was employed to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the effectiveness of the Ghana Accountability for Learning Outcomes Project (GALOP) on teaching quality and learner achievement in pre-tertiary schools in the Ejisu Municipality. The quantitative strand enabled statistical assessment of GALOP’s influence on instructional delivery and learner outcomes, while the qualitative strand provided contextual insights into stakeholder experiences and implementation processes.

2.2. Data Collection Instruments

Three complementary instruments ensured triangulation (Figure 4): (i) structured questionnaires (teachers and students) to assess teacher development activities, use of learning materials, instructional practices, and learner performance in core subjects; (ii) semi-structured interviews (headteachers and educational administrators) to explore accountability structures, implementation experiences, and observed learning improvements; (ii) focus group discussions (parents and community representatives) to capture community perceptions on changes in learner progress, school support, and resource use under GALOP.

Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study Fig 4: Triangulation framework showing the integration of structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions. The design incorporates stakeholder representation across the school system, including students (n = 336), teachers (n = 97), headmasters and administrators (n = 76), educational administrators (n = 9), and community participants, parents (n = 20), community representatives (n = 6), and community leaders (n = 6). The convergence of evidence across instruments enhances methodological rigor and reinforces the credibility and dependability of the study findings.

2.3. Data Analysis

Quantitative data were coded and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics to measure central tendencies and examine relationships between GALOP interventions, teaching quality, and learner achievement. Qualitative data from interviews and FGDs were transcribed and analyzed through thematic analysis, involving systematic coding, pattern categorization, and synthesis of emergent themes. Findings from both strands were integrated during interpretation to enhance depth, convergence, and explanatory power.

2.4. Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from municipal education authorities. Participation was voluntary and based on informed consent. Confidentiality, anonymity, and the protection of minors were ensured throughout data collection and reporting.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Effectiveness of Teacher Capacity Building and

Professional Development Initiatives Under Galop The regression outputs (Table 1) demonstrate that GALOP interventions exert a strong and statistically significant influence on teacher-related outcomes, specifically capacity building and professional development. The path coefficient for GALOP Impact on Teaching and Learning, Teacher Capacity Building is substantial (β = 0.662, R2 = 0.46, t = 16.735, p < 0.001), indicating that 46% of the variance in teacher capacity building is explained by GALOP-driven improvements in teaching and learning processes. This suggests that program components such as instructional coaching, mentoring, and competency-based training are effective in improving teachers’ pedagogical skills and instructional practices. Similar studies in low- and middle-income education systems validate these findings, showing that targeted teacher support interventions significantly enhance classroom instructional quality and learner engagement (Sabri et al., 2024; Prananto et al., 2025; White et al., 2025) [32, 29, 45].

Table 1: The regression output of Effectiveness of Teacher Capacity Building and GALOP Hypothesis Regression weights Beta Coefficient R2 F t-value p-value

Hypothesis

supported H1 GALOP impact on Teaching and Learning  Teacher Capacity Building 0.662 0.46 280.049 16.735 0 Significant H2 GALOP impact on Teaching and Learning  Professional Development Initiatives 0.84 0.635 573.529 22.948 0 Significant Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study Likewise, the structural relationship between GALOP Impact on Teaching and Learning and Professional Development Initiatives exhibited an even stronger effect (β = 0.840, R2 = 0.635, t = 22.948, p < 0.001), with 63.5% of the variance explained. This indicates that GALOP has successfully institutionalized continuous professional development (CPD), creating sustainable mechanisms for in-service teacher upgrading, training cycles, and school-based learning communities. Empirical evidence shows that educational reforms with embedded CPD systems lead to long-term improvements in teacher competence, retention, and learner performance (Jayanthi et al., 2023; Nyaaba et al., 2023; Smith & Gillespie, 2023) [20, 25, 37]. The exceptionally high beta coefficient implies that CPD under GALOP is not peripheral but central to the program’s operational theory of change, aligning with international research emphasizing CPD as a driver of systemic learning gains. Collectively, the evidence supports H1 and H2 by confirming that GALOP meaningfully strengthens teacher quality through both capacity building and professional development initiatives. These findings reinforce the growing consensus that investment in teachers, rather than infrastructure alone, is one of the most effective determinants of improved learning outcomes in basic education systems, especially in resource-constrained contexts (WBG, 2020; RTI, 2022) [31].

3.2. Scientific Interpretation of Parent-Observed

Effectiveness of Teacher Capacity Building Professional Development Under GALOP The Relative Importance Index (RII) results (Table 2) show that parents overwhelmingly perceive GALOP-driven teacher capacity building and professional development initiatives as effective, with all measured indicators receiving high mean scores ranging between 3.86 and 4.38 on a 5-point scale. This indicates a strong positive shift in teacher instructional competencies and professional behaviour as experienced by learners and confirmed by parent observations.

The highest-ranked indicator, “Students receive feedback from teachers about progress often” (Mean = 4.38; Rank = 1), suggests that capacity building under GALOP has improved teachers’ formative assessment practices. Learning Everest (2025) and Weidlich et al., (2024) [44] emphasized that feedback is widely recognized as one of the most powerful drivers of learning, and increased feedback frequency suggests stronger teacher-student interaction and monitoring of learning progress. Parents’ perception of this behaviour confirms that the benefits of training translate into visible teaching practices.

Table 2: Parent-Observed Effectiveness of Teacher Capacity Building and Professional Development Teacher Capacity Building and Professional Development Initiatives under GALOP Mean Std. Deviation Ranking Students receive feedback from teachers about progress often 4.38 0.669 1 Improvement in teachers’ ability to explain lessons to students 4.38 0.74 2 GALOP training has improved the effectiveness of teachers in student academic challenges 4.24 0.768 3 Students understand the subject better due to improved teaching methods 3.86 0.655 4 Teachers are motivated and engaged 3.86 0.793 5 Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study Similarly, “Improvement in teachers’ ability to explain lessons to students” (Mean = 4.38; Rank = 2) and “GALOP training has improved the effectiveness of teachers in addressing students’ academic challenges” (Mean = 4.24; Rank = 3) reflect strengthened pedagogical content knowledge and problem-solving skills, critical dimensions of effective instruction. These align with international evidence that teacher professional development programs emphasizing content mastery and instructional strategies yield significant improvements in learners’ understanding and performance (Audisio et al., 2024; Sophie, 2024) [6, 38]. The comparatively lower but still strong ratings for “Students understand the subject better due to improved teaching methods” (Mean = 3.86; Rank = 4) and “Teachers are motivated and engaged” (Mean = 3.86; Rank = 5) indicate secondary but meaningful improvements. Several studies confirmed that increased student comprehension suggests successful adoption of student-centred instructional methods, while the motivation indicator is important because teacher morale is closely linked to classroom productivity and retention (Assefa et al., 2025; Pastini & Lilasari, 2023) [4, 28]. The slightly lower ranking of motivation may imply that while professional skills have improved, teacher well-being and motivation require continuous support, consistent with Post-COVID educational recovery literature. Taken together, the RII findings support the conclusion that GALOP has produced visible and measurable improvements in teaching quality as perceived by external observers (parents), confirming the program’s effectiveness beyond self-reported or administrative metrics. These results reinforce the dominant argument in global education research that investments in ongoing capacity building and professional development significantly improve classroom instructional practices and student learning outcomes (Smith & Gillespie, 2023) [37].

3.3. Effectiveness of Teacher Capacity Building and

Professional Development Initiatives Under GALOP The thematic analysis (Table 3) provides nuanced qualitative insights into stakeholder perceptions of teacher capacity building and professional development under GALOP. Five dominant themes emerged, reflecting both strengths and areas requiring sustained intervention.

The most frequently occurring theme was “Challenges in Capacity Building” (75.29%), indicating that despite progress, respondents still perceive persistent barriers, such as limited training duration, uneven access to continuous professional development (CPD), resource constraints, and workload pressures. This aligns with global research showing that professional development programs often suffer reduced impact when follow-up support, time allocation, or classroom resources are inadequate (AbdulRab, 2023) [1].

Table 3: Thematic analyses for GALOP S/N Theme Theme Code Count Percent 1 Professional Development Impact PD-Impact 23 27.06% 2 Training Programs and Effectiveness TP-Effect 42 49.41% 3 Application of Skills in Classrooms App-Skills 18 21.18% 4 Challenges in Capacity Building CB-Challenges 64 75.29% 5 Recommendations for Improvement Rec-Improve 37 43.53% Total Respondents 85 100% Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study The next dominant theme, “Training Programs and Effectiveness” (49.41%), highlights strong recognition that GALOP training initiatives have meaningfully enhanced teacher competencies. Respondents identified improved pedagogical strategies, enhanced confidence, and better instructional clarity. This is consistent with evidence that targeted pedagogical training significantly improves teaching quality and learner engagement, especially in resource-constrained education systems (Ifenatuora et al., 2023) [19]. A related theme, “Professional Development Impact” (27.06%), reflects perceived improvements in the professionalism of teachers, including greater responsiveness to learner needs and improved classroom management. Research shows that CPD programs that are school-embedded and continuous, rather than one-off workshops, are most likely to yield behavioral change and sustainable learning gains (Boeskens et al., 2020) [8]. The theme “Application of Skills in Classrooms” (21.18%) indicates that a substantial proportion of teachers successfully transferred newly acquired skills into live teaching contexts. However, the lower ranking relative to training effectiveness suggests partial skill internalization or contextual challenges affecting implementation. This outcome corresponds with empirical evidence that instructional reforms are most effective when accompanied by coaching, peer learning communities, and post-training monitoring (Zamiri & Esmaeili, 2024) [47].

Finally, “Recommendations for Improvement” (43.53%) highlights stakeholders’ proactive feedback on strengthening CPD, including more frequent training cycles, hands-on workshops, and increased teaching-learning resources. This reflects the literature that continuous feedback from beneficiaries enhances program alignment and sustainability (Carreño, 2024; D’Brot & Brandt, 2024) [9, 11]. The thematic distribution shows that GALOP’s capacity-building and professional development components are producing positive outcomes in teacher competence and instructional quality (Figure 5). However, persistent structural and contextual challenges limit full realization of training benefits. The findings reinforce the consensus in global education research that capacity development is most effective when training is continuous, supported, and linked to classroom realities, rather than episodic or theoretical (Kumari, 2022) [21].

Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study Fig 5: Positive outcomes in teacher competence and instructional quality in GALOP’s capacity-building and professional development components.

3.4. Relative Important Index (RII) of Adequacy of

Learning Materials Under GALOP The Relative Importance Index (RII) analysis (Table 4) shows that stakeholders perceive the adequacy of learning materials under GALOP as moderately effective, with noticeable variability in access, quality, and utilization. The highest-ranked indicator, “School receives enough textbooks under GALOP” (Mean = 3.72; Rank = 1), indicates that the program has significantly improved the supply of core instructional materials. This is consistent with evidence that strengthening textbook provision is a key mechanism through which education reforms enhance learning outcomes, particularly in developing contexts (Adeniyi et al., 2024) [2].

Table 4: Adequacy of learning materials under GALOP Adequacy of Learning Materials Mean Std. Deviation Ranking School receives enough textbooks under GALOP 3.72 1.162 1 Relevant learning materials are provided 3.28 1.199 2 Learning materials are updated and easy to understand 3.1 1.208 3 Effective use of learning materials by teachers 3.07 1.229 4 Learning materials are regularly replaced when needed 3.06 1.034 5 Available learning materials for all subjects 3.05 0.955 6 Students personal access to learning materials 3.02 0.964 7 Sufficient learning materials for the entire student body 2.98 1.192 8 Learning materials improve student understanding of subject matters 2.78 1.215 9 Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study The second and third-ranked items, “Relevant learning materials are provided” (Mean = 3.28; Rank = 2) and “Learning materials are updated and easy to understand” (Mean = 3.10; Rank = 3), suggest that GALOP materials align with curriculum expectations and are pedagogically supportive. Bizimana et al., (2022) [7] observed that alignment between curriculum resources and classroom instruction increases concept mastery and student engagement. However, lower-ranked items reveal critical gaps in distribution equity and sustainability. “Effective use of learning materials by teachers” (Mean = 3.07; Rank = 4) and “Learning materials are regularly replaced when needed” (Mean = 3.06; Rank = 5) imply that teacher utilization and maintenance of resources remain suboptimal. This reflects global findings that the availability of instructional materials does not automatically translate into learning gains unless teachers are supported to integrate them effectively into pedagogy (UNESCO, 2023) [39].

The least-ranked indicators, “Students’ personal access to learning materials” (Mean = 3.02; Rank = 7), “Sufficient learning materials for the entire student body” (Mean = 2.98; Rank = 8) and “Learning materials improve student understanding of subject matters” (Mean = 2.78; Rank = 9), highlight persistent inadequacies in student-level access and distribution. These results indicate that although materials are present, they may not be available at an individual or subject-specific level. Literature confirms that student-to-textbook ratios greatly influence learning outcomes, and programs that do not reach full distribution saturation show reduced instructional benefits (Castro et al., 2025) [10].

The findings suggest that GALOP has improved the supply and relevance of learning materials, but distribution equity, teacher utilization, and sustained replenishment remain systemic challenges. Without guaranteeing individual access and consistent classroom integration, the expected improvements in learning outcomes may not be fully realized.

3.5. Parent-Observed Adequacy of Learning Materials

Under GALOP The Relative Importance Index (RII) findings in Table 5, indicate that parents perceive the learning materials supplied to schools under GALOP as highly effective in enhancing student learning, with mean scores ranging from 3.62 to 4.29 on a 5-point scale.

Table 5: RII of parent observed adequacy of learning materials provided to schools under GALOP Adequacy of Learning Materials Provided to Schools under GALOP Mean Std. Deviation Ranking Materials provided are helping students perform well in school 4.29 0.845 1 Student access to learning materials 4.29 0.845 2 Quality of learning material has improved under GALOP 4.05 1.117 3 Teachers use of learning materials is effective in class 3.9 0.768 4 Enough learning materials are given to students for home usage 3.62 0.669 5 Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study The two highest-ranked indicators, “Materials provided are helping students perform well in school” and “Student access to learning materials” (Mean = 4.29; Rank = 1 and 2), demonstrate that parents associate GALOP-provided materials with tangible improvements in students’ academic performance and access. This aligns with global evidence that adequate access to textbooks and structured learning resources is strongly correlated with improved foundational learning, retention, and subject mastery (UNESCO, 2023) [39]. The third indicator, “Quality of learning materials has improved under GALOP” (Mean = 4.05; Rank = 3), suggests that instructional materials align well with curriculum expectations and are appropriate for learners’ cognitive levels. Research supports that when learning resources are linguistically and pedagogically aligned with student needs, literacy and numeracy outcomes improve significantly (RTI International, 2022) [31].

Moderately high ratings for “Teachers’ use of learning materials is effective in class” (Mean = 3.90; Rank = 4) show that parents perceive teachers to be incorporating GALOP resources into teaching practices. This supports the recurring argument in development-sector research that the impact of learning materials depends not only on availability but also on how effectively teachers integrate them into instruction (OECD, 2024) [26].

The lowest-ranked item, “Enough learning materials are given to students for home usage” (Mean = 3.62; Rank = 5), highlights a remaining gap in individual material access beyond the classroom. This disparity suggests that while school-level distribution is improving, student-level resource ownership (e.g., take-home textbooks or activity books) remains insufficient. Studies across sub-Saharan Africa confirm that learning gains are significantly amplified when learners have access to materials both in school and at home (Castro et al., 2025) [10].

Parents’ perceptions indicate that GALOP has made substantial progress in strengthening learning material adequacy, particularly in terms of quality, access, and support for academic performance. However, full optimization of impact requires expansion of student-level take-home materials and consistent resource replenishment to ensure sustained and equitable learning benefits.

3.6. Adequacy of Learning Materials Provided to Schools

Under GALOP The thematic analysis reveals critical stakeholder insights into the adequacy of learning materials provided under GALOP (Table 6). The themes show both the progress made and the persistent gaps limiting full utilization of educational resources in schools.

Table 6: Adequacy of learning materials S/N Theme Theme Code Count Percent 1 Types and Sufficiency of Learning Materials LM-Types 73 85.88% 2 Relevance and Effectiveness of Materials LM-Effect 42 49.41% 3 Challenges in Distribution and Utilization LM-Challenges 25 29.41% 4 Utilization of Materials in Teaching/Learning LM-Usage 28 32.94% 5 Recommendations for Improvement LM-Improve 54 63.53% Total Respondents 85 100% Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study The most prevalent theme, “Types and Sufficiency of Learning Materials” (85.88%), indicates widespread acknowledgement that GALOP has supplied a variety of instructional resources, primarily textbooks, teacher guides, and supplementary materials. This aligns with evidence that investment in structured learning materials is a foundational strategy for improving teaching and learning quality in low-and middle-income systems (World Bank, 2020; Piper et al., 2018). The strong emphasis on sufficiency reflects a shift away from chronic shortages previously documented in Ghanaian basic schools.

The second theme, “Recommendations for Improvement” (63.53%), suggests that although resource supply has increased, respondents believe there is room for refinement in volume, frequency of replacement, and subject coverage. Similar feedback patterns occur in developing education systems where learning material reforms provide gains initially but require sustained replenishment to remain effective (UNESCO, 2023; Castro et al., 2025) [39, 10]. The theme “Relevance and Effectiveness of Materials” (49.41%) confirms that parents and teachers perceive GALOP-supplied materials as mostly aligned with curriculum and capable of supporting learner comprehension. This correlates with findings that instructional materials matched to pupil cognitive levels and national curricula significantly enhance learning outcomes (RTI International, 2022) [31].

Moderate representation of the themes “Utilization of Materials in Teaching/Learning” (32.94%) and “Challenges in Distribution and Utilization” (29.41%) highlight persistent constraints affecting equitable usage. These may include classroom overcrowding, uneven teacher capacity to integrate materials, and logistical inefficiencies in distribution. Literature consistently stresses that improving learning outcomes requires not only availability of materials but also teacher support in effective classroom integration and regular access for all students (OECD, 2024) [26]. The findings indicate that GALOP’s provision of learning materials is substantially improving resource availability and classroom instruction, yet systemic inconsistencies in distribution, utilization, and sustainability limit optimal impact. Continued progress will depend on ensuring equitable access, supporting effective teacher use, and implementing routine replenishment policies.

3.7. RII of The Role of Strengthened Accountability

Systems In Improving School Management and Student Outcomes Table 7 indicate that the Relative Importance Index (RII) findings highlight that strengthened accountability systems under GALOP are moderately effective in improving school management and student outcomes, with mean scores ranging from 3.01 to 3.61.

Table 7: Role of Strengthened Accountability Systems Role of Strengthened Accountability Systems Mean Std. Deviation Ranking Parents involved in monitoring school activities/student progress 3.61 1.099 1 Adjustment of teaching methods based on student performance 3.46 1.107 2 Students receive regular feedback on academic performance 3.43 1.2 3 Teachers receive feedback on their performance from students/administrators 3.43 1.217 4 Regular meetings by the school to discuss academic progress 3.31 1.119 5 Regular monitoring of teachers to follow teaching guidelines 3.05 0.993 6 Tracking and reviewing student performance for improvement 3.01 0.95 7 Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study The highest-ranked item, “Parents involved in monitoring school activities/student progress” (Mean = 3.61; Rank = 1), underscores the increasing role of parental participation in accountability processes. Research shows that parental involvement in monitoring school performance and student learning enhances transparency, reduces absenteeism, and supports student success (UNICEF, 2025; Epstein & Sheldon, 2023)) [40, 14]. This suggests that GALOP’s emphasis on community participation is improving stakeholder engagement in school governance.

The next two indicators, “Adjustment of teaching methods based on student performance” (Mean = 3.46; Rank = 2) and “Students receive regular feedback on academic performance” (Mean = 3.43; Rank = 3), reflect the adoption of data-driven teaching practices. This is consistent with the global shift toward formative assessment and adaptive pedagogy, which are strongly associated with improved learning outcomes (OECD, 2024) [26]. The results imply that accountability systems are pushing teachers to use student performance data to inform instructional decisions. Indicators “Teachers receive feedback on their performance from students/administrators” (Mean = 3.43; Rank = 4) and “Regular meetings by the school to discuss academic progress” (Mean = 3.31; Rank = 5) suggest that feedback loops and collaborative dialogue are present but not yet fully institutionalized. Literature supports that systematic feedback and collegial reflection improve instructional quality and strengthen school leadership (White et al., 2025) [46], implying that GALOP has made progress but further consistency is required.

The lowest-ranked indicators, “Regular monitoring of teachers to follow teaching guidelines” (Mean = 3.05; Rank = 6) and “Tracking and reviewing student performance for improvement” (Mean = 3.01; Rank = 7), point to weaknesses in sustained performance monitoring. This suggests gaps in administrative capacity or insufficient enforcement of accountability protocols. Studies across low- and middle-income countries show that accountability reforms achieve maximum impact only when monitoring is continuous, well resourced, and aligned with instructional support rather than punitive approaches UNICEF, 2025) [40].

The results indicate that strengthened accountability systems under GALOP have improved parental involvement and encouraged performance-informed teaching, contributing to better student outcomes. However, monitoring structures and continuous performance review mechanisms remain underdeveloped, suggesting the need for deeper institutionalization of accountability practices to achieve sustained school improvement.

3.8. RII of Parent Observed Role of Strengthened

Accountability Systems in Improving School Management and Student Outcomes The RII findings in Table 8, indicate that parents perceive strengthened accountability mechanisms under GALOP as positively contributing to improved school management and student outcomes, though with varying levels of effectiveness across dimensions.

Table 8: Parents perceive strengthened accountability mechanisms under GALOP Role of Strengthened Accountability Systems Mean Std. Deviation Ranking Better monitoring of student's academic performance by administrators 4.1 0.889 1 Management is more responsive to concerns from parents/community 3.67 1.155 2 Parents/community are involved in school decision-making 3.52 1.167 3 GALOP has improved discipline and student performance in school 3.43 1.121 4 Frequent communication between parents and teachers 3.14 1.352 5 Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study The highest-ranked indicator, “Better monitoring of students’ academic performance by administrators” (Mean = 4.10; Rank = 1), shows that accountability reforms have strengthened school leadership’s capacity to track learning progress. Empirical research supports that systematic monitoring of student performance by school leadership improves instructional planning, remediation, and transparency of learning outcomes (Bruns, Filmer, & Patrinos, 2011; World Bank, 2020).

The second-ranked indicator, “Management is more responsive to concerns from parents/community” (Mean = 3.67; Rank = 2), suggests improved feedback loops between schools and communities. Parental voice and responsiveness from leadership are associated with greater trust, increased student retention, and stronger school performance (Epstein & Sheldon, 2023); UNICEF, 2025) [14, 40]. GALOP’s emphasis on school-community engagement appears to reinforce shared responsibility for student learning. The third-ranked indicator, “Parents/community are involved in school decision-making” (Mean = 3.52; Rank = 3), reflects modest but meaningful progress in participatory governance. International evidence shows that community-inclusive school governance improves accountability, teacher effort, and resource allocation (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Onyinye & Ukonu, 2025) [15, 27]. However, the score suggests that participation remains emerging rather than institutionalized. The fourth indicator, “GALOP has improved discipline and student performance in school” (Mean = 3.43; Rank = 4), indicates that accountability systems may be indirectly influencing student behaviour and academic progress. Research links strong school accountability to higher behavioral expectations and improved academic preparedness (OECD, 2024; UNESCO, 2023) [26, 39]. The lowest-ranked indicator, “Frequent communication between parents and teachers” (Mean = 3.14; Rank = 5), highlights a persistent weakness in two-way dialogue between home and school. Studies confirm that parental engagement has the greatest effect on learning when communication is systematic and continuous rather than sporadic or event-based (Sharma, 2024) [34]. Thus, this represents an area requiring further intervention to sustain learning gains.

The results suggest that GALOP’s accountability reforms have strengthened school leadership oversight and enhanced responsiveness to community concerns, creating a more transparent and performance-oriented school environment. However, parent-teacher communication and consistent community participation in decision-making remain comparatively underdeveloped, implying that for accountability gains to translate into long-term improvements in student outcomes, school-home collaboration must be deepened and institutionalised.

3.9. Thematic Analysis of The Role of Strengthened

Accountability Systems in Improving School Management and Student Outcomes The thematic analysis in Table 9 highlights how strengthened accountability systems under GALOP are shaping school management and student outcomes. Responses clustered around five major themes, reflecting both positive developments and obstacles in accountability implementation.

Table 9: Strengthened accountability systems under GALOP shaped school management and student outcomes S/N Theme Theme Code Count Percent 1 Strengthening Accountability Systems AS-Strength 51 60.00% 2 Measures to Track Performance AS-Track 19 22.35% 3 Influence on Leadership and Decision-Making AS-Leadership 46 54.12% 4 Challenges in Accountability Implementation AS-Challenges 21 24.71% 5 Recommendations for Improvement AS-Improve 67 78.82% Total Respondents 85 100% Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study The most salient theme, “Recommendations for Improvement” (78.82%), indicates that stakeholders recognize accountability reforms as beneficial but view them as incomplete and requiring further strengthening. This pattern aligns with global evidence that school accountability reform is most impactful when implementation is iterative and continuously refined based on stakeholder feedback (UNESCO, 2023; Gouëdard et al., 2020) [39, 17]. Respondents’ focus on improvement suggests a willingness among school communities to sustain accountability mechanisms. The second most prominent theme, “Strengthening Accountability Systems” (60.00%), shows widespread acknowledgement that GALOP has institutionalized monitoring, reporting, and performance evaluation mechanisms in schools. Several studies indicate that establishing clear accountability expectations increases teacher performance, reduces absenteeism, and improves student learning outcomes (Agbo, 2025; OECD, 2024) [3, 26]. A similarly strong theme, “Influence on Leadership and Decision-Making” (54.12%), demonstrates perceptions that accountability reforms have prompted more transparent and data-informed decision-making among school leaders. International research supports that accountability promotes instructional leadership, collaborative reflection, and resource optimization, which in turn enhance school effectiveness (Gading et al., 2024) [16].

Moderate emphasis on “Measures to Track Performance” (22.35%) suggests that while performance tracking tools, including assessments, reporting sheets, attendance monitoring, and progress reviews, are present, they may not be consistently or systematically applied. This mirrors evidence from low- and middle-income countries, where accountability reforms succeed only when tracking mechanisms are routine, accessible, and well-resourced (Dipela & Mohapi, 2021; RTI International, 2022) [12, 31]. The theme “Challenges in Accountability Implementation” (24.71%) points to operational constraints such as inconsistent monitoring, workload pressures, limited administrative capacity, and an uneven culture of data use. Similar barriers have been documented across sub-Saharan Africa, where accountability initiatives face resistance or weak uptake when teachers lack time, incentives, or support to comply (UNICEF, 2025; Castro et al., 2025) [40, 10]. The results suggest that GALOP’s accountability component has positively influenced school leadership, decision-making, and learning monitoring practices, yet institutionalization remains incomplete, and stakeholders actively seek refinement. Effective sustainability will depend on strengthening implementation support, consistency in monitoring, and community-school collaboration.

3.10. Significance of GALOP From the Study

The findings of this study demonstrate that GALOP has produced measurable improvements across the three core domains targeted by the program, teacher capacity building and professional development, provision of adequate learning materials, and strengthened accountability systems. Quantitative and qualitative evidence converged to show that teacher-focused interventions have led to increased pedagogical competence, more effective instructional practices, and more frequent provision of academic feedback to learners. These outcomes align with international evidence that teacher professional development is the single most influential school-level determinant of learning outcomes (OECD, 2024; Smet, 2021) [26, 36]. However, motivation-related and contextual factors suggest that continuous training and support are required to sustain these gains. Learning material reforms under GALOP have similarly enhanced resource adequacy and relevance in schools. Parents and teachers observed that new instructional materials support student learning and performance, corroborating findings from global structured-pedagogy interventions that show strong learning improvements when teaching resources are aligned to curriculum and cognitive needs (Meng, 2023; UNESCO, 2023) [23, 39]. Nonetheless, persistent challenges, including insufficient take-home materials and uneven utilisation of resources in classrooms, indicated that the availability of materials alone does not guarantee improvements unless complemented by systematic replenishment and teacher integration.

The accountability dimension of GALOP was found to strengthen performance monitoring, feedback, and school-community engagement. Increased parental involvement, leadership responsiveness, and performance-based instructional adjustments align with the literature on distributed accountability improving educational governance and student learning (Ehren & Baxter, 2020; Epstein & Sheldon 2023) [13, 14]. Yet, inconsistent monitoring practices and weak institutionalization of feedback loops reveal that accountability systems remain partially embedded rather than systemic.

Collectively, the results indicate that GALOP is effectively moving schools toward a more professionalized, resource-supported, and accountability-driven learning environment. However, the program’s long-term impact will depend on sustained implementation, institutionalization, and resource continuity.

3.11. Policy Implications of The Outcome of The Study

To sustain the gains from GALOP, Continuous Professional Development must shift from temporary project cycles to a system-embedded model anchored in school-based coaching, peer learning communities and performance-linked support. Improving learning outcomes also requires moving beyond the mere supply of teaching and learning materials to ensuring their effective classroom integration and equitable access for every learner, including take-home resources to strengthen foundational skills. Monitoring and accountability should be reinforced through structured data-use routines such as progress reviews and learning audits, alongside clear reporting pathways to institutionalize a performance-driven school culture. Stronger community-school collaboration is essential, with parents and community representatives formally engaged in school governance for participatory accountability and improved learner outcomes. Sustainability further depends on a budget strategy that allows government recurrent expenditure to progressively absorb GALOP interventions, especially teacher training, material replenishment and monitoring systems, to prevent post-donor decline. Finally, equity-focused targeting remains critical; underserved schools should be prioritized using needs-based resource allocation and data-guided deployment of coaching and supervision to close persistent utilisation gaps, as illustrated in Figure 6.

Drawing on the study’s findings, a conceptual model-interaction of GALOP Components was developed (Figure 6) to illustrate how teacher capacity building, learning materials provision, and strengthened accountability systems interact to enhance teaching quality and learner achievement. The model provides a strategic framework that can inform both school implementation and policy formulation.

Source: Designed by the authors with data from the study Fig 6: GALOP impact emerges from the synergy between teacher professional development, improved learning materials, and accountability systems. None of the pillars alone is sufficient; learning gains are achieved when competent teachers, adequate materials, and strong accountability coexist.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of GALOP in improving teaching quality and learner achievement by examining three core intervention pillars: teacher capacity building and professional development, adequacy of learning materials, and strengthened accountability systems. Across all data strands, quantitative indices, thematic analysis, and parent/teacher perceptions, the findings consistently demonstrate that GALOP has contributed positively to the transformation of teaching and learning conditions in schools. Teacher competence, instructional clarity, provision of feedback, and adaptive pedagogy have improved significantly, indicating that capacity-building initiatives are achieving their intended purpose. Improvements in learning material adequacy and relevance further reinforce instructional effectiveness, although individual-level access and consistency in classroom utilization remain areas for attention. Accountability reforms have enhanced monitoring of student progress, responsiveness of school management, and involvement of parents and communities in school governance. Nonetheless, performance tracking and communication systems require deeper institutionalization to translate into sustained student outcome gains. Overall, GALOP has laid a strong foundation for a professionalized, resource-supported, and accountability-driven school ecosystem. To ensure long-term program impact, reforms must be embedded into mainstream school operations through recurrent financing, continuous implementation support, and sustained stakeholder participation.

Recommendation

The following policy recommendation matrix (Table 10) highlights the key strategic areas required to sustain and scale the gains of GALOP. It outlines specific, actionable reforms, identifies responsible agencies for implementation, and ranks each action by its urgency and impact to guide efficient decision-making and resource allocation.

Table 10: Policy recommendation matrix Strategic area Policy recommendation Responsible agency Priority level Teacher Capacity Building Institutionalize continuous school-based CPD, mentoring, and coaching rather than periodic workshops MoE, GES-TED, District Education Directorates High Learning Materials Transition from bulk distribution to equitable student-level allocation and take-home access, with structured replenishment cycles MoE, NaCCA, Textbook Procurement Unit High Accountability Systems Embed routine student performance tracking and data-driven instructional adjustments in school schedules GES, Headteachers, Circuit Supervisors High Community Engagement Formalise parent / community representation in school decision-making committees School Management Committees, PTAs Medium Teacher Motivation Link feedback and professional development to incentives, career progression, and recognition GES-HR, Teacher Unions Medium Monitoring and Supervision Shift from compliance-based supervision to instructional support supervision District Education Directorates, Supervisors High Sustainability Integrate recurring GALOP costs into annual education budgets to avoid donor-dependency risks MoE, Ministry of Finance High Equity Prioritise resource allocation and training deployment to rural / low-performing schools MoE, Regional / District Directorates High Source = Designed by the authors with data from the study Declaration of Conflicting Interests The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors declare that there was no funding for this study.

Acknowledgement

The authors sincerely express their gratitude to the parents, school management and teachers, and students in Ejisu Municipality for their willingness, cooperation, and active participation in this study. Their support and contributions were invaluable to the successful completion of the research.