Perceived Inclusiveness of Swimming Facilities and Women’s Swimming Participation Intention: The Mediating Roles of Body Image Anxiety and Perceived Safety

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1. Introduction

Regular participation in sport and physical activity is important for maintaining health, quality of life, and psychological well-being. Systematic reviews have consistently demonstrated positive associations between physical activity and quality of life and well-being among adults and older populations. However, participation in sport and physical activity is not determined solely by individual motivation or capability; rather, it is shaped by the interplay of psychological, social, and physical environmental factors (Rhodes et al., 2020; Wiese et al., 2018) [24, 28]. Social support, social networks, and neighborhood characteristics, together with the availability, accessibility, and design of sport facilities and built environments, may influence opportunities for and levels of physical activity participation (McNeill et al., 2006; Prochnow et al., 2023) [16, 20]. For women, gender norms, body image concerns, perceived safety, and facility environments may further create participation experiences that differ from those of men. A systematic review of environmental attributes associated with women’s sport participation identified convenience, appropriate spaces and equipment, and perceived safety as relevant environmental factors, suggesting that sport facilities are not merely settings for activity but environments whose design and use may shape women’s participation (Hanlon et al., 2019) [8]. Swimming presents distinctive bodily and spatial characteristics compared with many other forms of physical activity. Participation typically requires relatively form-fitting or body-revealing swimwear and the use of shared spaces such as changing rooms, showers, and pools, thereby making issues of bodily exposure, social evaluation, privacy, and safety particularly salient for women. Howells and Grogan (2012) [9] found that female swimmers’ perceptions of their bodies involved appearance, muscularity, feminine body ideals, and the perspectives of others. Similarly, Porter et al. (2013) [18] identified swimwear, bodily characteristics, self-observation, and others’ responses as important components of female swimmers’ body image experiences. These experiences may also be understood through the perspective of objectified body consciousness, whereby viewing one’s body from an external observer’s perspective can contribute to greater body surveillance and body shame (McKinley & Hyde, 1996) [15]. Accordingly, BIA may represent an important psychological mechanism underlying women’s participation in swimming, where bodily visibility is particularly pronounced. Beyond body image, safety represents another important psychological dimension of women’s sport participation. Timperio et al. (2015) [27] found that perceived personal safety mediated the relationship between the social environment and women’s leisure-time physical activity, indicating that environmental conditions may influence participation through individuals’ subjective evaluations of safety. A meta-analysis similarly identified a meaningful association between perceived safety and physical activity (Rees-Punia et al., 2018) [22]. These concerns may be especially relevant in swimming environments because participation involves not only the use of public exercise spaces but also changing, showering, wearing swimwear, and sharing facilities with unfamiliar users. Consequently, the extent to which swimming facilities provide adequate privacy, appropriate spatial arrangements, and a supportive environment may shape women’s perceptions of safety and their willingness to participate.

Research on aquatic leisure further suggests that women’s swimming participation should be understood within its specific spatial and social contexts rather than solely in terms of individual preferences. Lenneis et al. (2022) [14], for example, found that women-only swimming spaces provided Muslim women not only with opportunities for physical activity but also with experiences of comfort, safety, and belonging. Soltani (2021) [26] similarly demonstrated that women’s participation in aquatic leisure is shaped by intersecting influences related to gender, religion, culture, and the body. Research involving adult female migrants has further identified cultural and religious backgrounds, mixed-gender swimming environments, and swimwear requirements as potential influences on participation in swimming and water-safety programs (Willcox-Pidgeon et al., 2021) [29S]. Collectively, these findings suggest that the extent to which swimming facilities accommodate women’s needs for space, privacy, and comfortable use may facilitate or constrain participation.

Despite these insights, several gaps remain. First, research on sport facilities and women’s participation has predominantly addressed general sport and physical activity environments, whereas quantitative evidence concerning inclusiveness within swimming facilities remains limited (Hanlon et al., 2019) [8]. Second, previous research on women’s swimming has identified body image, swimwear, social scrutiny, safety, and belonging as important dimensions of participation (Howells & Grogan, 2012; Lenneis et al., 2022; Porter et al., 2013) [9, 14, 18], but much of this literature has relied on qualitative approaches. Consequently, less is known about how facility environments are associated with swimming participation through women’s psychological perceptions. The relationship between facility conditions and participation may therefore involve multiple psychological pathways rather than a simple direct association. To address these gaps, the present study introduces perceived swimming facility inclusiveness (PSFI), defined as women’s overall perception of whether swimming facilities adequately address their needs in terms of spatial design, privacy, changing and showering environments, and female-friendly amenities. Swimming pools are not merely physical spaces for activity; users’ evaluations of facility and environmental quality constitute an important dimension of facility performance (Lau et al., 2021) [13]. Women’s experiences in swimming environments are also distinctly embodied and gendered. Bodily exposure associated with swimwear and the possibility of being observed by others may heighten attention to appearance and bodily presentation (Evans et al., 2016) [5]. Experimental evidence further indicates that wearing a swimsuit can increase self-objectification, body shame, and appearance anxiety while reducing intrinsic motivation among women (Dimas et al., 2021) [4]. Moreover, social characteristics of exercise environments can influence affective responses, enjoyment, self-efficacy, and future exercise intentions among women experiencing concerns about physical appearance (Raedeke et al., 2007) [21]. Safety perceptions may likewise be shaped by facility conditions, with evidence indicating that perceived facility safety is associated with users’ overall sense of safety and may differ by gender (Kim et al., 2023) [10]. Accordingly, the present study considers body image anxiety (BIA) and perceived safety (PS) as parallel psychological mechanisms through which PSFI may be associated with women’s subsequent swimming participation.

The primary behavioral outcome examined in this study is swimming participation intention (SPI). Behavioral intention reflects an individual’s willingness and planned tendency to perform a particular behavior and represents an important proximal psychological antecedent of physical activity. Recent systematic evidence indicates that intention is closely associated with subsequent physical activity, although its translation into behavior remains contingent on individual and contextual factors (Rhodes et al., 2022) [23]. Feil et al. (2023) [6] further demonstrated a substantial intention– behavior gap in physical activity, underscoring the importance of identifying the antecedents through which intentions are formed. More recent evidence suggests that factors such as daily barriers and social support may influence the translation of physical activity intentions into behavior (Knapova et al., 2024) [11], with similar discrepancies between intentions and subsequent behavior observed among women (Arigo et al., 2022) [3]. Examining SPI therefore provides a theoretically relevant means of understanding how facility environments and women’s body-and safety-related psychological experiences are associated with their willingness to engage in future swimming. Accordingly, this study examines the relationship between PSFI and SPI among women and investigates the mediating roles of BIA and PS. Rather than conceptualizing barriers to women’s swimming participation as isolated factors, the study integrates facility-level conditions with individual psychological perceptions and examines two distinct pathways involving body image and safety. In doing so, the study seeks to extend current understanding of the environmental and psychological mechanisms underlying women’s participation in swimming and aquatic leisure, while providing empirical evidence relevant to the development of more inclusive, private, safe, and female-friendly swimming environments.

2. Methods

2.1. Research Design

This study employed a cross-sectional quantitative research design to examine the relationships among PSFI, BIA, PS, and SPI among adult women and to further assess the parallel mediating roles of BIA and PS. Respondents were adult women with prior swimming experience, and data were collected at the Swimming and Diving Hall of the Zhanjiang Olympic Sports Center in Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province, China. An on-site questionnaire survey was administered, with eligible female facility users invited to participate in the study. Prior to completing the questionnaire, respondents were informed of the study purpose, anonymity of their responses, and voluntary nature of participation. Descriptive statistics were first used to summarize respondents’ demographic characteristics and swimming participation profiles. Subsequently, partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed to assess the reliability and validity of the measurement model, examine the structural relationships among the study variables, and test the parallel mediating effects of BIA and PS.

2.2. Research Framework

Fig 1: Research Framework

2.3. Research Instruments

The survey instrument was developed with reference to established measures and relevant literature and adapted to the context of women’s swimming participation (Table 1). It comprised 17 items measuring four constructs: PSFI (4 items), BIA (5 items), PS (4 items), and SPI (4 items). PSFI assessed women’s perceptions of the spatial design, privacy, and overall female-friendliness of swimming facilities, with items developed based on the environmental attributes of sport facilities identified by Hanlon et al. (2019) [8]. BIA assessed anxiety and discomfort associated with wearing swimwear, bodily exposure, and perceived evaluation by others in swimming settings. The items were contextualized based on the concept of objectified body consciousness proposed by McKinley and Hyde (1996) [15] and previous research on body image among female swimmers (Howells & Grogan, 2012; Porter et al., 2013) [9, 18]. PS assessed women’s overall sense of safety within swimming environments, drawing on relevant research by Timperio et al. (2015) [27] and Park et al. (2026) [17]. SPI was grounded in the concept of behavioral intention within the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) [1] and adapted to the swimming context with reference to the measurement of physical activity intention by Amireault et al. (2008) [2]. All items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicated higher levels of the corresponding construct; specifically, higher BIA scores represented greater body image anxiety in swimming settings.

The questionnaire also included eight items assessing demographic characteristics and swimming participation behaviors. Demographic variables included age, educational attainment, marital status, and occupational status, while swimming-related variables included swimming frequency during the previous year, years of swimming experience, primary swimming venue, and usual swimming companions. These variables were collected to characterize the demographic composition and swimming participation profiles of the study sample and were used for descriptive statistical analysis.

Table 1: Measurement Items Variables Items Perceived Swimming Facility Inclusiveness The spatial design of the swimming facility meets the needs of female users. (PSFI1) The swimming facility provides adequate privacy for women. (PSFI2) The changing and shower facilities allow women to use them comfortably. (PSFI3) The swimming environment and facilities are female-friendly. (PSFI4) Body Image Anxiety When wearing a swimsuit, I am concerned that others may notice my body shape. (BIA1) At swimming venues, I worry that others may judge my physical appearance. (BIA2) I feel uncomfortable about my body when wearing a swimsuit in front of others. (BIA3) At swimming venues, I pay particular attention to how my body looks. (BIA4) Wearing a swimsuit sometimes makes me anxious about participating in swimming. (BIA5) Perceived Safety I feel safe when participating in activities at swimming venues. (PS1) I am not particularly concerned about being harassed or offended by others at swimming venues. (PS2) I feel comfortable using swimming facilities even when unfamiliar people are around. (PS3) I rarely worry about threats to my personal safety at swimming venues. (PS4) Swimming Participation Intention I intend to participate in swimming activities within the next three months. (SPI1) I plan to participate in swimming activities within the next three months. (SPI2) I intend to participate in swimming regularly within the next three months. (SPI3) I am willing to increase my opportunities to participate in swimming within the next three months. (SPI4)

2.4. Respondents

The respondents were adult female swimmers in Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province, China. The survey was conducted at the Swimming and Diving Hall of the Zhanjiang Olympic Sports Center from January 5 to May 31, 2026. Purposive sampling was employed to recruit women aged 18 years or older who were using the swimming facility during the survey period and voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. Data were collected primarily at the competition and training pools. To minimize the concentration of respondents within a single pool or time period, recruitment was conducted at both locations across different dates and times, with efforts made to maintain a balanced distribution between the two survey sites. Respondents were invited to complete the questionnaire after finishing their swimming activities. A total of 420 questionnaires were distributed. Following data screening, 33 questionnaires were excluded due to incomplete responses to key scale items, substantial missing data, patterned responding, apparent logical inconsistencies, or failure to meet the inclusion criteria. The final sample comprised 387 valid questionnaires, yielding a valid response rate of 92.1%.

Regarding respondent characteristics (Table 2), the largest age group was 25–34 years (34.9%), followed by 35–44 years (25.1%), and 52.2% held a university degree. Slightly more than half were unmarried (51.4%), while 45.5% were married, and employed respondents constituted the largest occupational group (43.2%). Regarding swimming behavior, the most common frequency was one to three times per month (26.4%), followed by less than once per month (21.2%) and once per week (18.1%). Respondents with one to three years of swimming experience represented the largest group (31.8%), followed by those with four to six years of experience (19.6%). Public swimming pools (30.7%) and private or commercial swimming pools (29.2%) were the most frequently used venues. Friends or colleagues were the most common swimming companions (30.7%), followed by swimming alone (25.3%) and with family members (23.5%). Overall, the sample represented women with diverse demographic backgrounds and swimming experiences.

Table 2: Demographic Characteristics and Swimming Behaviors of Respondents Variables Categories Frequency (n) Percentage (%) Age ≥55 years 23 5.9 Education High school/vocational school or below 44 11.4 Junior college 60 15.5 University 202 52.2 Postgraduate or above 81 20.9 Marital status Unmarried 199 51.4 Married 176 45.5 Occupation Student 49 12.7 Employee 167 43.2 Self-employed/Freelancer 47 12.1 Family caregiver 48 12.4 Retired 34 8.8 Swimming frequency in the past year Never 38 9.8 Less than once per month 82 21.2 1–3 times per month 102 26.4 Once per week 70 18.1 2–3 times per week 60 15.5 ≥4 times per week 35 9.0 Swimming experience No experience 27 7.0 <1 year 73 18.9 ≥11 years 34 8.8 Primary swimming venue Public swimming pool 119 30.7 Private/commercial swimming pool 113 29.2 School swimming pool 42 10.9 Hotel/community swimming pool 45 11.6 Natural water environment 38 9.8 Usual swimming companion Alone 98 25.3 Family members 91 23.5 Friends/colleagues 119 30.7 Swimming class/group members 57 14.7

2.5. Data Analysis

PLS-SEM was performed using SmartPLS. The measurement model was first assessed for reliability and validity based on factor loadings, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and discriminant validity. The structural model was subsequently evaluated using path coefficients and the coefficient of determination (R²). Bootstrapping was employed to test the proposed hypotheses and the parallel mediating effects of BIA and PS. Statistical significance was set at p <.05.

3. Results

3.1. Reliability and Validity

The measurement model demonstrated satisfactory reliability and convergent validity across all constructs (Table 3). For PSFI, factor loadings ranged from 0.816 to 0.865, with a BIA, factor loadings ranged from 0.822 to 0.868, with a PS, factor loadings ranged from 0.835 to 0.869, with a SPI, factor loadings ranged from 0.849 to 0.889, with a Cronbach’s α of 0.899, CR of 0.930, and AVE of 0.768. Overall, all factor loadings exceeded 0.700, CR values exceeded 0.700, and AVE values exceeded 0.500, confirming satisfactory internal consistency and convergent validity of the measurement model.

Table 3: Reliability and Convergent Validity of the Measurement Model Variables Items Factor loading Cronbach’s α C.R. AVE Perceived Swimming Facility Inclusiveness PSFI1 0.844 0.865 0.908 0.712 PSFI2 0.865 PSFI3 0.816 PSFI4 0.849 Body Image Anxiety BIA1 0.863 0.900 0.926 0.714 BIA2 0.846 BIA3 0.868 BIA4 0.825 BIA5 0.822 Perceived Safety PS1 0.864 0.877 0.916 0.731 PS2 0.852 PS3 0.869 PS4 0.835 Swimming Participation Intention SPI1 0.883 0.899 0.930 0.768 SPI2 0.884 SPI3 0.849 SPI4 0.889 Note: PSFI=Perceived Swimming Facility Inclusiveness; BIA=Body Image Anxiety; PS=Perceived Safety; SPI=Swimming Participation Intention; C.R.=Composite Reliability; AVE=Average Variance Extracted Discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornell–Larcker criterion (Table 4). The square roots of the AVE values for BIA, PS, PSFI, and SPI were 0.845, 0.855, 0.844, and 0.876, respectively, all exceeding the absolute values of their correlations with the other constructs. The inter-construct correlations ranged from −0.514 to 0.630, indicating satisfactory discriminant validity among all constructs.

Table 4: Discriminant Validity: Fornell–Larcker Criterion Variables BIA PS PSFI SPI BIA 0.845 PS −0.300 0.855 PSFI −0.392 0.535 0.844 SPI −0.514 0.630 0.569 0.876 Note: PSFI=Perceived Swimming Facility Inclusiveness; BIA=Body Image Anxiety; PS=Perceived Safety; SPI=Swimming Participation Intention

3.2. Structural Model Analysis

The mediation analysis showed that the indirect effect of PSFI on SPI through BIA was significant (β = 0.117, t = 6.224, p <.001, 95% CI [0.082, 0.155]). The indirect effect through PS was also significant (β = 0.224, t = 8.697, p <.001, 95% CI [0.177, 0.276]). As the direct effect of PSFI on SPI remained significant, both BIA and PS partially mediated the relationship between PSFI and SPI.

Fig 2: Structural Model Analysis

4. Discussion

This study examined how PSFI influences women’s SPI by integrating facility-related environmental factors with individual psychological perceptions. The findings showed that PSFI was positively associated with SPI both directly and indirectly through BIA and PS. These findings are consistent with previous research emphasizing the importance of physical and social environments for physical activity (McNeill et al., 2006; Rhodes et al., 2020; Prochnow et al., 2023) [16, 24, 20] and support the view that women’s sport participation may be influenced by facility safety, convenience, and environmental conditions (Hanlon et al., 2019) [8]. Extending this evidence to swimming settings, the present study suggests that facility inclusiveness involves more than simply providing spaces for activity. Women’s subjective experiences of spatial design, privacy, and female-friendly facilities may also be closely associated with their subsequent participation intentions.

Regarding the body image pathway, higher PSFI was associated with lower BIA, which in turn was associated with lower SPI. Swimming involves wearing swimwear and relatively high bodily visibility, potentially heightening women’s awareness of their appearance and concerns about being observed and evaluated by others (Howells & Grogan, 2012; Porter et al., 2013) [9, 18]. Previous research has also demonstrated a close and complex relationship between body image and physical activity, with negative body-related experiences potentially constituting an important psychological barrier to women’s sport participation (Sabiston et al., 2019) [25]. Experimental evidence further indicates that wearing a swimsuit is associated with greater self-objectification, body shame, and appearance anxiety (Dimas et al., 2021) [4]. Social physique anxiety has also been associated with physical activity behavior among male and female exercisers (Portman et al., 2018) [19], while women’s psychological responses during exercise may be influenced by peers’ appearance and social comparison cues (Kroon et al., 2023) [12]. Together with the present findings, this evidence suggests that BIA should not be viewed solely as an individual body-related attitude but also in relation to specific sport environments and social contexts.

PS also emerged as an important psychological mechanism linking PSFI to SPI. This finding is consistent with evidence associating perceived environmental safety with physical activity participation (Rees-Punia et al., 2018) [22] and with research identifying women’s safety perceptions as a psychological mechanism linking environmental conditions to leisure-time physical activity (Timperio et al., 2015) [27]. Compared with many other sport settings, swimming involves changing, showering, wearing swimwear, and sharing spaces with unfamiliar users, all of which entail heightened privacy concerns. Women’s assessments of environmental safety may therefore be particularly salient in swimming settings. Research on women-only swimming spaces similarly indicates that safety, comfort, and belonging are important components of women’s swimming experiences and that appropriate environments can provide spaces in which women feel more comfortable and a greater sense of belonging (Lenneis et al., 2022) [14]. Thus, swimming facility inclusiveness may extend beyond functional facility provision by reducing concerns about harassment, inappropriate behavior, or other environmental threats, thereby enhancing PS and, in turn, SPI.

Notably, both BIA and PS partially mediated the relationship between PSFI and SPI, suggesting two distinct but coexisting psychological processes through which women respond to swimming environments. BIA primarily reflects concerns about bodily observation and evaluation, whereas PS reflects whether an environment is perceived as safe to use. Previous research has shown that women with higher social physique anxiety may experience different emotional and psychological responses across exercise environments and that perceived threats of external evaluation may contribute to these responses (Focht, 2007) [7]. Raedeke et al. (2007) [21] also demonstrated that social environmental factors can influence psychological responses to exercise among women with high social physique anxiety. In contrast, research on women-only swimming highlights the spatial and social significance of safety and belonging (Lenneis et al., 2022) [14]. By incorporating both psychological pathways within the same model, the present study suggests that women’s swimming participation may depend not only on personal motivation but also on whether they feel comfortable with their bodies in the environment and whether they perceive the space as safe to use. This finding extends previous research that has largely examined body image, safety perceptions, and sport environments separately.

Overall, this study integrates PSFI, BIA, PS, and SPI within a single analytical framework, supporting an environmental perception–psychological experience–participation intention perspective on women’s swimming participation. Previous research has established that both the built environment and subjective perceptions of the environment are associated with physical activity (Rhodes et al., 2020; Prochnow et al., 2023) [23, 20], while body image and sport participation among women are also interrelated (Sabiston et al., 2019) [25]. Building on this literature, the present findings suggest that PSFI may be associated with women’s SPI through both body-related and safety-related psychological mechanisms. Nevertheless, participation intentions do not necessarily translate into actual behavior, and an intention–behavior gap has been documented in physical activity research (Rhodes et al., 2022; Feil et al., 2023; Knapova et al., 2024) [24, 6, 11]. Future research could therefore employ longitudinal designs to examine actual swimming participation and determine whether facility inclusiveness and the associated psychological mechanisms also explain women’s sustained swimming behavior.

5. Theoretical Contributions

The primary theoretical contribution of this study lies in integrating the swimming facility environment and women’s psychological experiences within a single analytical framework. Previous studies have largely examined sport facilities and environmental conditions (Hanlon et al., 2019; Rhodes et al., 2020) [8, 24], body image and social physique anxiety (Sabiston et al., 2019) [25], and perceived safety (Timperio et al., 2015) [27] separately, with limited attention to how these factors operate within women’s swimming contexts. By introducing PSFI, this study incorporates spatial design, privacy, and female-friendliness into perceptions of the swimming environment, thereby extending the explanatory scope of existing research on sport environments.

Second, this study identifies BIA and PS as two parallel psychological pathways through which facility environments are associated with women’s SPI. This environmental perception–psychological experience–participation intention framework extends previous research that has focused primarily on individual attitudes or isolated environmental factors and provides a more context-specific theoretical perspective for understanding women’s participation in sport settings characterized by bodily exposure, privacy concerns, and safety considerations.

6. Implications

The findings have practical implications for the planning and management of swimming facilities. Beyond equipment quality and convenience, facility operators should consider women’s privacy, safety, and spatial needs in facility design. This may include improving privacy in changing and shower areas, minimizing unnecessary bodily exposure, and establishing clear facility management and anti-harassment measures to create a more inclusive swimming environment. The findings also indicate that BIA and PS are closely associated with women’s SPI. Efforts to promote women’s swimming participation should therefore extend beyond program promotion and marketing to address appearance-related evaluation concerns and safety concerns within swimming environments. Female-friendly spatial design, clear codes of conduct, and a supportive environment may enhance women’s comfort and sense of safety, thereby creating conditions more conducive to sustained swimming participation.

7. Limitations of the Study

This study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional design captured data at a single point in time; therefore, the observed relationships reflect statistical associations and do not establish causality. Second, the sample was limited to female swimmers in Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province, China, and was recruited through purposive sampling. Caution is therefore warranted when generalizing the findings to other regions, cultural contexts, or swimming populations. Third, the study relied primarily on self-reported data, which may be subject to social desirability and common method bias. Finally, SPI was examined as the outcome variable without subsequent assessment of actual swimming behavior. Future research could employ longitudinal designs, recruit samples across different regions and facilities, and incorporate measures of actual swimming behavior to further assess the robustness and applicability of the proposed model.

8. Conclusion

This study examined the influence of PSFI on women’s SPI and the mediating roles of BIA and PS. The findings indicate that greater PSFI is associated with stronger SPI, both directly and indirectly through lower BIA and higher PS. These findings suggest that women’s swimming participation is associated not only with individual psychological factors but also with their subjective perceptions of swimming facilities and the environments in which they are used. Accordingly, facility environments, body image, and safety perceptions should be considered jointly to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying women’s SPI.